 What is this FAQ about?
This FAQ was first compiled in 1995 by an ad-hoc group of scientists and
scholars interested in parapsychology, the study of what is popularly called
"psychic" phenomena. Since then this document has been translated into German,
Portuguese, Spanish and Finnish, and reprinted in several magazines around the
world. The authors' disciplines include physics, psychology, philosophy,
statistics, mathematics, computer science, chemistry, anthropology, and history.
The major contributors and their affiliations are listed at the end of this
document.
The majority of this group are members of the Parapsychological Association
(PA). The PA is an international professional society founded in 1957 and
elected an affiliate of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
in 1969. While not an official publication of the PA, the contributors to this
FAQ include several past-Presidents of the PA and members of the Board of
Directors of the PA. The authors' cumulative laboratory and field research
experience with parapsychology is estimated at over 400 years.
The authors aimed for consensus on each FAQ item, but as in many topics,
especially in young, multidisciplinary domains like parapsychology, there were
some disagreements. In spite of these disagreements, the authors believed that
because of burgeoning public interest in parapsychology, the lack of reliable
information about this topic on the Web, and the many myths and distortions
associated with this field, it was important to put some basic information on
the Web sooner rather than later.
Who is the intended audience?
This FAQ was written as a general introduction to parapsychology for individuals
ranging from advanced high-school students to professionals with little or no
background in parapsychology. Writing for such a broad audience is a challenge,
because gaining an appreciation of parapsychology today requires at least a
passing knowledge of a wide range of topics, including statistics, experimental
design, quantum mechanical theory, the sociology and philosophy of science,
history of parapsychology, and the scientific literature on parapsychology.
Because our expected audience is so broad, we have touched only briefly on many
technical issues that underlie interesting issues and debates within the field.
Therefore, the approach in this FAQ is to clarify the complex topic of
parapsychology without glossing over important points and without "dumbing down"
the basic content. For a few particularly tricky issues that we do wish to cover
here, we've included sections labeled Technical Note.
We are slowly building a comprehensive source of information on parapsychology,
mainly through the addition of hyperlinks to other sources on the Web, including
details on the major topics of debate, the prevailing theories, discussions of
empirical evidence, links to journal papers, reference sources, mission
statements and other items from the major parapsychological research centers,
individual researchers' home pages, and home pages for relevant scientific and
scholarly societies.
Technical Note: The Audience
The content and style of this FAQ sparked a debate among the authors. At least
six potential audiences were identified: physical scientists, social and
behavioral scientists, hardened skeptics, New-Age enthusiasts, those interested
in ghost and haunting investigations, and readers with little or no background
in any of the conventional sciences or in parapsychology.
For physical scientists, we felt it was important to discuss methodology and
terminology, and comment on some of the usual criticisms of parapsychology. For
social and behavioral scientists, we added some implications of the observation
that people throughout history and across all cultures have reported psychic
experiences. For hardened skeptics, or people whose knowledge of parapsychology
is based solely upon the skeptical literature, we felt it was important to
address the fact that there is substantial, scientifically persuasive empirical
data available. For people with New-Age or paranormal interests, enthusiasms, or
assumptions, we felt that at least part of the purpose here would be to indicate
the limits of what claims the scientific data actually justify. For other
readers who may know little or nothing about the topic, or about science or
scientific methods, we've applied a broad-brush approach to cover as much of the
field as possible in a single document. Hyperlinks will be added in future
editions to help flesh out this FAQ.
What is parapsychology?
Parapsychology is the scientific and scholarly study of three
kinds of unusual events (ESP, mind-matter interaction, and survival), which are
associated with human experience. The existence of these phenomena suggest that
the strict subjective/objective dichotomy proposed by the old paradigm (see
below) may not be quite so clear-cut as once thought. Instead, these phenomena
may be part of a spectrum of what is possible, with some events and experiences
occasionally falling between purely subjective and purely objective. We call
such phenomena "anomalous" because they are difficult to explain within current
scientific models.
Parapsychology only studies those anomalies that fall into one of three general
categories: ESP (terms are defined below), mind-matter interaction (previously
known as psychokinesis), and phenomena suggestive of survival after bodily
death, including near-death experiences, apparitions, and reincarnation. Most
parapsychologists today expect that further research will eventually explain
these anomalies in scientific terms, although it is not clear whether they can
be fully understood without significant (some might say revolutionary)
expansions of the current state of scientific knowledge. Other researchers take
the stance that existing scientific models of perception and memory are adequate
to explain some or all parapsychological phenomena.
What is not
parapsychology?
In spite of what the media often imply, parapsychology is not the study of
"anything paranormal" or bizarre. Nor is parapsychology concerned with
astrology, UFOs, searching for Bigfoot, the Loch Ness monster, paganism,
Satinism, vampires, alchemy, or witchcraft.
Many scientists have viewed parapsychology with great suspicion because the term
has come to be associated with a huge variety of mysterious phenomena, fringe
topics, and pseudoscience. Parapsychology is also often linked, again
inappropriately, with a broad range of "psychic" entertainers, magicians, and
so-called "paranormal investigators" or "paranormalists." In addition, some
self-proclaimed "psychic practitioners" call themselves parapsychologists, but
that is not what we do.
What is a paradigm?
When one speaks about a topic which is controversial to many, such as
parapsychology, it is crucial to understand the concept of a paradigm. A
paradigm is an underlying worldview. It can be thought of as a framework of
beliefs which are so taken for granted that most folks are not even aware they
have made any assumptions. A paradigm helps us to make sense of the world around
us. But perhaps more importantly, in terms of science, it not only determines
what is true, but how truth itself can be determined. There is an obvious catch
to this. If one does not recognize the underlying assumptions one makes with a
paradigm, it has the potential to limit our perception of the world, what we can
discover, and how we can determine that knowledge.
The old paradigm, which many have held since the days of Descartes, states that
the subjective and objective worlds are completely distinct, with no overlap.
Subjective is "here, in the head," and objective is "there, out in the world."
The Cartesian paradigm presupposes that there are objective ways to define and
measure the fixed external world--which the proponents of this paradigm would
say is the only world that matters. The classical paradigm favors experimental
research design, which presumes to measure the world in an objective way.
Quantum theory triggered a fundamental shift in how we understand the world.
Physicists suddenly realized that there is always some indeterminacy in our
measurements. This is because the act of measurement itself can define and
change that which is being measured. Because of this, the experimenter may
always part of the experiment, and all our "objective" facts are, in fact,
potentially flawed (with ESP making it impossible to ever have a truly "blind"
experiment). This insight led to the idea of a paradigm based on nonlocality.
And while not all physicists agree, the new paradigm that is emerging is one in
which the universe is a single whole, within which every part is connected on
some level to every other part. This new paradigm does not "prove" psi exists.
However, it is compatible with the possible existence of psi, and may lead to a
better understanding the phenomena.
It should be noted that the conflict between these two paradigms is ongoing.
Because these belief systems are both widespread and deeply ingrained, topics
that touch on these fundamentally different worldviews may give rise to bitter
and violent debate, with little or no room for compromise. The lack of common
ground between paradigms means that the question cannot be solved by discussion.
Ultimately, the answer will have to be determined by which paradigm does the
best job of answering the questions raised by research.
Understanding the role that paradigms play makes it easier for advocates of
competing worldviews to agree to disagree with mutual respect. If you wish to
read more about this topic, you may wish to pick up a copy of Thomas Kuhn's
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
What do parapsychologists study?
Many feel that the strangest, and most
interesting, aspect of parapsychological phenomena is that they do not appear to
be limited by the known boundaries of space or time. In addition, they blur the
sharp distinction usually made between mind and matter. In popular usage, the
basic parapsychological phenomena are categorized as follows:
ESP: Extra-sensory
perception; a general term for obtaining information about events beyond the
reach of the normal senses. This term subsumes telepathy, clairvoyance,
precognition, and presentiment
.
Clairvoyance:
Sometimes called remote viewing; obtaining information about events at remote
locations, beyond the reach of the normal senses.
Precognition: Also
called premonition. Obtaining information about future events, where the
information could not be inferred through normal means. Many people report
dreams that appear to be precognitive.
Presentiment: This is
where physiological parameters may change prior to the application of a
stimulus, suggestive of the fact that on an unconscious level the person knew
what was coming before it occurred (and before it was even randomly chosen).
Telepathy: Direct
mind-to-mind communication.
Mind-Matter Interaction:
Previously known as psychokinesis or PK; direct mental interaction with physical
objects, animate or inanimate.
Anpsi: Psi in
animals.
NDE: Near death
experience; an experience reported by those who were revived from nearly dying.
Often refers to a core experience that includes feelings of peace, OBE, seeing
lights and other phenomena.
OBE: Out-of-body
experience; the experience of feeling separated from the body, often accompanied
by visual perceptions as though from above the body.
Reincarnation: The
belief that we live successive lives, with primarily evidence coming from the
apparent recollections of previous lives by very small children.
Haunting: Recurrent
phenomena reported to occur in particular locations that include apparitions,
sounds, movement of objects, and other effects.
Place Memory: the
apparent ability of a building or location to hold recorded impressions of
people and events that transpired in the past.
Poltergeist:
Large-scale PK phenomena often attributed to spirits, but which are now thought
to be due to a living person or group of people. Although reported in all age
groups, the agent is most frequently an adolescent.
Psi: A neutral term
for parapsychological phenomena, inclusive of both ESP and mind-matter
interaction. Psi, psychic, and psychical are synonyms.
Technical Note: Terms
The above terms are representative of common usage, but parapsychologists
usually define psi phenomena in more neutral or operational terms. This is
because labels often carry strong but unstated connotations that can lead to
misinterpretations.
For example, telepathy is commonly thought of as mind-reading. However, in
practice, and certainly in laboratory research, experiences of telepathy rarely
involve perception of actual thoughts, and the experience itself often does not
logically require communication between two minds, but can also be "explained"
as clairvoyance or precognition. Keep in mind that the names and concepts used
to describe psi actually say more about the situations in which the phenomena
are observed, than about any fundamental properties of the phenomena themselves.
That two events are classified the same does not mean they are actually the
same.
In addition, in scientific practice many of the basic terms used above are
accompanied by qualifiers such as "apparent," "putative," and "ostensible." This
is because many claims supposedly involving psi may not be due to psi, but to
normal psychological or misinterpreted physical reasons.
Why is parapsychology interesting?
Parapsychology is interesting mainly because of the implications. To list a few
examples, psi phenomena suggest (a) that what science knows about the nature of
universe is incomplete; (b) that the presumed capabilities and limitations of
human potential have been underestimated; (c) that fundamental assumptions and
philosophical beliefs about the separation of mind and body may be incorrect;
and (d) that religious assumptions about the divine nature of "miracles" may
have been mistaken.
As an aside, we should note that many parapsychologists today, including most of
the authors of this FAQ, take an empirical, data-oriented approach to psi
phenomena, and specifically avoid discussing speculative implications that are
not supported by data. However, some researchers regard the current findings of
parapsychology as having a wide variety of important implications, including
implications about the spiritual nature of humankind. Thus, in deference to the
broad readership expected of this document, we present in the following
Technical Note some of the possible implications of psi, acknowledging that this
section is, of course, speculative.
Technical Note: Some Implications of Parapsychology
Physicists tend to be interested in parapsychology because of the implication
that we have a gross misunderstanding about space and time and the transmission
of energy and information.
.
Biologists are interested because psi implies the existence of additional,
unexplained methods of sensing the world.
.
Psychologists are interested for what psi implies about the nature of perception
and memory.
.
Philosophers are interested because psi phenomena specifically address many
age-old philosophical problems, including the role of the mind in the physical
world, and the nature of the objective vs. the subjective.
.
Theologians and the general public tend to be interested because personal psi
experiences are often accompanied by feelings of profound, ineffable meaning. As
a result, psi is thought by some to have "spiritual" implications.
.
From the materialistic perspective, one of the foundations of the current
scientific worldview, human consciousness is nothing but an emergent product of
the functioning of Brain, Body, and Nervous System (BBNS). That is, no matter
how different mind may seem from solid stuff like bodies, it is generated solely
by the electrochemical functioning of the BBNS, and so it is absolutely
dependent on it. When the BBNS dies, so does consciousness. From this
perspective, claims of survival of bodily death, or ghosts, or apparitions, must
be due to wishful thinking. Furthermore, the limits of material functioning
automatically determine the ultimate limits of mental functioning, thus ESP and
PK appear to be impossible, given our current understanding about how the world
works.
And yet, psi phenomena have occurred in all cultures throughout history, they
continue to occur, and some of the reported phenomena have been persuasively
verified using scientific methods. Because psi seems to transcend the assumed
limits of material functioning, and therefore the BBNS, some interpret psi as
supporting the idea that there is something more to mind than just the BBNS,
that there is some sort of "soul," or the like.
This "non-physical" aspect, an aspect that does not seem to be as tightly
bounded by space or time as present scientific models require, might survive
bodily death. If so, there may be important truths contained in some spiritual
ideas and practices. Of course, parapsychology is a very long way from being
able to say that "the data shows that X" (insert your favorite religious group
here) are specifically right about religious doctrines A, B, and C but dead
wrong about dogmas P, Q and R.
We must emphasize that there is a big difference between simply noting that the
findings of parapsychology may have implications for spiritual concepts, versus
the idea that parapsychologists are driven by some hidden spiritual agenda. Some
critics of parapsychology seem to believe that all parapsychologists have hidden
religious motives, and that they are really out to prove the existence of the
soul. This is no more true than claiming that all chemists really harbor secret
ambitions about alchemy, and thus their real agenda is to transmute mercury into
gold. The reasons why serious investigators are drawn to any discipline are as
diverse as their backgrounds.
Practical applications of psi
Studies of direct mental interaction with living systems suggest that
traditional mental healing techniques, such as prayer, may be based on genuine
psi-mediated effects. In the future it may be possible to develop enhanced
methods of healing based on these phenomena.
Psi may be involved in Murphy's Law: "If anything can go wrong, it will." That
is, modern machines based upon sensitive electronic circuits, such as copiers
and computers, may at times directly interact with human intention, and as a
result, inexplicably fail at inopportune times. Of course, the converse may also
be true. That is, the possibility exists to repair, or to control sensitive
machines solely by mental means. Such technologies would significantly benefit
handicapped persons.
Other potential applications include improved methods of making decisions, of
locating missing persons or valuables, and of describing events at locations we
cannot go to because of distance, time, or accessibility. This includes the
possibility of psi-based historians and forecasters.
Highly developed psi abilities may benefit psychotherapy and other forms of
counseling. Psi may be used to provide a statistical edge in the financial
markets and in locating archeological treasures. |
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